The Study IAS

Category: Environment, Ecology and Biodiversity

  • Ashtamudi Lake Faces Water Quality Concerns

    Context:

    • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has reported that four locations in Ashtamudi Lake, a prominent Ramsar site in Kollam district, Kerala, are unfit for bathing water standards set by The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
    • This revelation came in a status report submitted to the National Green Tribunal (NGT) in response to a suo motu case based on a report by The Hindu.

     

    where do microplastics come from

    Key Highlights:

    • The four monitoring stations in Ashtamudi Lake are at Thoppilkadavu, near the KSRTC bus depot, Perumon, and Kundara Ceramics.
    • A study by the Department of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries, University of Kerala, found microplastics in fish, shellfish, sediment, and water in the lake. 
    • The study, supported by the Ecomarine Project and co-funded by the Erasmus Programme of the European Union, showed:
    • Fish contained 19.6% microplastics, while shellfish had a significantly higher level at 40.9%.
    • Fish and shellfish often contain hazardous components like plastic polymers (nylon, polyurethane, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polysiloxane) and heavy metals (molybdenum, iron, and barium). 
    • These pollutants, found in their guts, can pose significant risks to both marine life and human health.
    • The study emphasises the need for immediate action to address and reduce microplastic pollution, including developing strategies to manage plastic waste and minimise its entry into estuarine systems.

     

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    Microplastics are tiny plastic fragments that are less than five millimetres long. Sources of pollution in the lake include untreated municipal solid waste and plastic debris, local waste discharge from residences and resorts, and nylon fibre pollution from fishing equipment like nets, cages, and monofilaments.

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    About Ashtamudi Lake:

    • Ashtamudi Lake, the second largest lake in Kerala, is located in the Kollam district.
    • Ashtamudi Estuary, the second largest estuary in Kerala is linked to the Arabian Sea through a continuous opening at Neendakara and Sakthikulangara in Kollam taluka, Kollam district.
    • Size: Approximately 16 kilometres in length, covering about 30% of Kollam town.
    • It is bordered by lush green trees and swaying coconut palms and connects to the sea through the Neendakara estuary.
    • Name Origin: “Ashtamudi” derives from “Ashta” (eight) and “Mudi” (branch), indicating the lake’s eight branches.
    • Drainage: The lake’s branches converge into a single channel that meets the Arabian Sea.
    • The lake system comprises eight branches: Thevally Lake, Kandachira Lake, Kureepuzha Lake, Thekkumbagham Lake, Kallada Lake, Perumon Lake, Kumbalathu Lake, and Kanjirottu Lake.

  • World Ozone Day

    World Ozone Day is celebrated annually on September 16. This date commemorates the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which aimed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances responsible for ozone depletion.

     

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    Ozone Diplomacy by Richard Benedick:

    This book is often regarded as a definitive account of the Montreal Protocol and its implications for international environmental policy. It provides insights into the negotiations and strategies that led to the treaty’s success and offers lessons applicable to current climate change negotiations.

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    Current Status of Ozone Depletion:

    • Ozone depletion remains a significant environmental concern, particularly in polar regions. 
    • The most notable phenomenon is the Antarctic ozone hole, which occurs during the Southern Hemisphere’s spring (September to November) due to the breakdown of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). 
    • Although the Montreal Protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer, scientists warn that full recovery may take several decades, and climate change could complicate these efforts.

     

    Conventions Related to Ozone Depletion Mitigation:

    • Montreal Protocol (1987): This landmark treaty aims to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, particularly CFCs, halons, and other harmful chemicals. It is widely regarded as one of the most successful environmental agreements.
    • London Amendments (1990): These amendments to the Montreal Protocol accelerated the phase-out schedules for certain ozone-depleting substances and added new substances to the list of controlled chemicals.
    • Copenhagen Amendments (1992): Further strengthened the protocol by setting more stringent controls on ODS and establishing a framework for financial and technological assistance to developing countries.
    • Beijing Amendment (1999): This amendment included additional substances and established a process for the assessment of new scientific information regarding ozone depletion.

     

     

    Southern Hemisphere Ozone Depletion:

    • Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs): In the extremely cold conditions of the Antarctic stratosphere, PSCs form and provide a surface for chemical reactions that lead to the release of chlorine and bromine from ODS, significantly enhancing ozone depletion.
    • Seasonal Variations: The Antarctic experiences prolonged periods of winter darkness, which allows for the accumulation of ozone-depleting chemicals and the subsequent rapid depletion of ozone during the spring when sunlight returns.
    • Geographic and Meteorological Factors: The unique geography and climatic conditions of the Southern Hemisphere contribute to the formation of the ozone hole, making it more susceptible to severe depletion compared to the Northern Hemisphere.

     

    State of the Global Climate Report:

    • Ozone Layer Recovery: The report indicates that the ozone layer is on track to recover within the next few decades, with full recovery projected by around 2066 over Antarctica and earlier for other regions. This recovery is crucial as it helps mitigate the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on human health and ecosystems.
    • Impact of Climate Change: While the ozone layer is recovering, the report notes that climate change is complicating this recovery process. Changes in climate patterns can influence the dynamics of the stratosphere and affect ozone levels.
    • Monitoring Efforts: The WMO emphasises the importance of continuous monitoring and high-quality measurements of stratospheric ozone to understand long-term changes and their causes. 
    • The organisation has revived its annual Ozone and UV Bulletin, which provides updates on the status of the ozone layer and UV radiation.

     

    Recent Observations:

    The report mentions that in 2022, higher-than-normal ozone levels were observed in the tropics and subtropics, while lower levels were noted at higher latitudes, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. It also discusses the effects of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption, which altered stratospheric conditions and potentially impacted ozone levels.

  • Cemented Artificial Reefs: A Viable Solution for Reviving Aquatic Life

    Context:

    In February 2024, a groundbreaking environmental initiative unfolded in Chilika Lake, Odisha, where scientists and engineers introduced 100 artificial reefs to restore and enhance local aquatic ecosystems.

     

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    • Chilika Lake, Asia’s largest brackish water ecosystem, has faced declining fish catches and biodiversity losses due to overfishing and environmental impacts such as storm surge from cyclones. 
    • The artificial reef project began in March 2023, with 40 structures submerged in September 2023 and the remaining 60 in February 2024. 
    • The reefs span a 200-metre-long wall over 0.5 square kilometres.

     

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    Artificial reefs are man-made structures designed to provide habitat for marine life, particularly in areas where natural reefs are lacking or degraded. While they cannot fully replicate the complex functions of natural coral reefs, they offer significant ecological benefits. These structures provide essential shelter, promote reproductive spaces, and support biodiversity by fostering the growth of marine plants and organisms.

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    Key Highlights:

    • The artificial reefs near Satapada are designed to create new habitats for juvenile crabs, prawns, and fish. Made from cement, aggregates, and crushed sea shells from local sources like Puri Beach.
    • The material was chosen for its durability and resistance to saltwater.
    • Local fishermen have been involved in the construction and submersion of these reefs, highlighting the project’s community engagement and its potential to boost local fisheries.
    • The project team monitors the reefs to observe how marine life colonises them. Initial signs are promising, with various species already attaching to the reefs and creating new ecological niches.

     

     

    Global Efforts: 

    • The Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Marine Fisheries Institute (ICAR-CMFRI) initiated artificial reef experiments in Lakshadweep and Tuticorin in the 1990s.
    • Other Indian Efforts: In Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. Tamil Nadu has several artificial reef modules that have become popular fishing sites.
    • In January 2024, Kerala announced a plan to deploy 6,300 artificial reefs under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana.
    • Global Practices: Artificial reefs are used worldwide, including in the US, Japan, France, China, Korea, and Australia. 
    • Examples include:
    • US: Redbird Reef in Delaware with 2 million tonnes of rock, concrete, and various retired objects.
    • Japan: A long history of using stones to enhance seaweed productivity, with a national reef program launched in 1976.

  • Ambitious Targets Could Slash CO2 Emissions from Transport Sector 

    Context:

    A recent study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) India reveals that carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from India’s transport sector could be reduced by up to 71% by 2050 if high-ambition strategies are adopted. 

     

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    • This significant reduction hinges on three key parameters: electrification, improving fuel economy standards, and switching to cleaner modes of transport and mobility.
    • As of 2020, India’s transport sector accounted for 14% of the country’s total energy-related CO2 emissions. 
    • Road transport was responsible for 90% of these emissions, with heavy-duty vehicles contributing the largest share (45%).

     

    Key Highlights:

    • The study underscores the need to decarbonise electricity generation alongside electrifying the transport sector. 
    • Adopting a carbon-free electricity standard—where 75% of electricity comes from renewable sources—could cut emissions by 75% by 2050 compared to business-as-usual (BAU) values.
    • The simulation indicates that transitioning to low-carbon transport for both freight and passenger segments is the most cost-effective approach, potentially saving ₹12,118 per tonne of CO2 equivalent reduced.
    • The study highlights the importance of ambitious strategies to achieve India’s net-zero target by 2070. 
    • Without these measures, the transport sector will continue to rely heavily on fossil fuels, making it difficult to meet climate goals.

     

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    BAU Scenario Projections

      • Reliance on Fossil Fuels: If current trends continue, the transport sector will remain heavily reliant on fossil fuels until 2050.
      • Fossil Fuel Consumption: The consumption of fossil fuels like liquefied petroleum gas, diesel, and petrol is expected to quadruple over the next three decades.

    Demand Increase:

      • Passenger Travel: Expected to triple between 2020 and 2050.
      • Freight Travel: Projected to increase seven times during the same period.

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    Strategic Recommendations:

    • Electrification: The mandate for increasing EV sales is projected to have the highest impact on CO2 emissions reduction, with an annual abatement potential of 121 million metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent (MtCO2e).
    • Fuel Economy Standards: This involves setting stringent regulations for fuel efficiency in both passenger and freight transport.
    • Cleaner Modes of Transport: Shifting to low-carbon transport options, such as public transportation, cycling, and walking, can further reduce emissions. 
    • Additionally, promoting the use of cleaner fuels and technologies in freight transport is essential.

  • Ozone Pollution Threatens Tropical Forests and Carbon Storage

    Context:

    A new study published in Nature Geoscience shows that ozone pollution severely affects tropical forests, causing them to lose about 300 million tonnes of carbon annually. 

     

    More on News:

    • Tropical forests act as crucial “carbon sinks,” capturing and storing carbon dioxide that contributes to global warming.
    • Ozone concentrations are expected to rise due to increased precursor emissions and altered atmospheric chemistry worsening the impact on tropical forests.

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    Ozone is an odourless, colourless gas made of three oxygen atoms (O3). It exists naturally in both the Earth’s upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and at ground level (troposphere).

    Ozone Levels:

    • Stratospheric Ozone: Protects Earth from harmful UV radiation and is a success of environmental action.
    • Ground-Level Ozone: Formed by pollutants and sunlight, interferes with plants’ ability to absorb carbon dioxide and is harmful to human health.

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    Key Highlights:

    • The study found that ozone pollution decreases yearly growth in these forests by an average of 5.1%, with some regions experiencing even greater impacts, such as Asia, where it reaches 10.9%. 
    • Ground-level ozone has prevented the capture of 290 million tonnes of carbon per year since 2000. This has resulted in a cumulative 17% reduction in carbon removal by tropical forests this century.
    • Urbanisation, industrialisation, fossil fuel burning, and fires have increased the precursor molecules like nitrogen oxides that form ozone.
    • Areas of current and future forest restoration, critical for climate change mitigation, are disproportionately affected by elevated ozone.
    • The study underscores the need for better environmental protection to reduce ground-level ozone and improve air quality, thereby supporting tropical forest health and climate change mitigation efforts.

     

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    Ozone Depletion:

    • Some compounds known as ozone-depleting substances (ODS) release chlorine or bromine which in the presence of UV radiation contribute to ozone depletion in the Stratosphere.
    • Sources: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Halons, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and methyl bromide.

    Measures to regulate Ozone Depleting Substances:

    • Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: 
      • Signed in 1985 
      • It was the first international agreement dedicated to the protection of the ozone layer.
    • Montreal Protocol on Ozone-Depleting substances:
    • Gradually eliminating the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances to limit their damage to the earth’s ozone layer.
    • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol since they deplete the ozone layer.
    • The Montreal Protocol was signed by 197 countries – the first treaty in the history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification.

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  • Amazon Rainforest

    Context:

    New research shows that despite its vital role in combating global warming, nearly 40% of the most carbon-dense areas of the Amazon remain unprotected. 

     

    amazon rainforest

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    • According to Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project (MAAP) analysis, 61% of the highest carbon-storing areas in the Amazon are protected as indigenous reserves or other designated conservation lands. 
    • However, the remaining areas largely lack official protection. 
    • In Brazil, Suriname, and French Guiana, only 51% of these critical carbon areas are designated for preservation. 
    • Peru, on the other hand, safeguards a higher percentage, though some unprotected areas are marked for logging.

     

    About Amazon

    • The Amazon Rainforest is a vast tropical rainforest that occupies the drainage basin of the Amazon River and its tributaries in northern South America, covering approximately 6 million square kilometres. 
      • The landscape contains:
        • About  1 in 10 known species on Earth.
        • 1.4 billion acres of dense forests.
        • 20% of the world’s liquid freshwater.
        • 2.7 million square miles in the Amazon basin, about 40% of South America.
    • It spans about 40% of Brazil’s land area and is bordered by the Guiana Highlands to the north, the Andes Mountains to the west, the Brazilian central plateau to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east.
    • Amazonia is the largest river basin in the world, with its forest stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Andean tree line in the west. 
      • The forest expands from a 320-km front along the Atlantic to a 1,900-km wide belt near the Andean foothills. This vast, continuous rainforest is sustained by the region’s high rainfall, humidity, and consistently warm temperatures.
    • The Amazon Rainforest is the richest and most diverse biological reservoir on Earth, containing millions of species of insects, plants, birds, and other wildlife, many of which remain undocumented. 
      • Its lush vegetation includes a variety of trees such as myrtle, laurel, palm, acacia, rosewood, Brazil nut, and rubber trees. Timber from mahogany and Amazonian cedar is particularly prized. 

    Notable wildlife includes jaguars, manatees, tapirs, red deer, capybaras, various rodents, and several species of monkeys.

  • Species in News: Elongated Tortoise

    Context:

    The elongated tortoise was spotted in Haryana’s Damdama area during a research survey in the Aravallis. 

     

    elongated tortoise

    More on News:

    • The tortoise’s presence in the Aravallis is unusual as it is not native to this region. It is more commonly found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
    • This medium-sized tortoise, distinguished by its yellowish-brown or olive shell adorned with black blotches and a pink ring around the nostrils during the breeding season, represents a significant discovery in this region.

     

    About Elongated Tortoise:

    • Scientific Name: Indotestudo Elongata
    • Common Names: Elongated Tortoise, Yellow Tortoise
    • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
    • Listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
    • Habitat: The species, also known as the Sal Forest Tortoise, usually resides in open deciduous forest areas, including Sal (Shorea Robusta) forests, evergreen forests, dry thorn forests, and savannah grasslands.
    • Distribution: Southeast Asia, including northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Guangxi Province in China, and Peninsular Malaysia. 
    • A disjunct population exists in the Chota Nagpur plateau in eastern India.
    • Diet: They are omnivorous and consume a diverse diet that includes various plants, leaves, fallen fruit, flowers, fungi, snails, slugs, and carrion.
    • Typically breed in the summer and autumn. Females lay up to 5 eggs in a deep nest, which incubate for about 100 days.
    • Threats: Including exploitation for food, traditional medicine, and incidental capture during farming or resource extraction.
    • Human-Related Risks: Declines are attributed to human activities, including hunting and habitat disruption.

  • Progress Report on Air Quality Improvement Under NCAP

    Context:

    The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in India is showing promising results, with significant improvements in air quality across many cities. 

     

    city wise performance in reducing PM10

    More on News:

    • According to data from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 95 of the 131 cities covered under the NCAP have demonstrated enhanced air quality. 
    • Notably, 21 of these cities have achieved a reduction in PM10 pollution by over 40% compared to 2017-18 levels.

     

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    The National Clean Air Programme Overview

    • The NCAP was launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in January 2019. 
    • Original Target: Initially aimed to reduce particulate pollution by 20-30% by 2024, using 2017 as the base year.
    • Revised Target: A 40% reduction by 2026, with 2019-20 as the new base year.

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    Key Highlights:

    • Currently, performance assessment under the NCAP is focused solely on PM10 concentration.
    • Only 18 out of 131 cities met the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM10, which is set at 60 micrograms per cubic metre.
    • PM10 levels in Delhi have seen a reduction of between 10-20%, with the city being one of the most polluted capitals globally.

     

    GIM

    Government Initiatives:

        • Financial Allocations: Rs. 19,612 crore has been allocated for city action plans from 2019-20 to 2025-26. 
        • Nagar Van Yojana: 3,776 hectares of Nagar Van/Vatikas created in 64 cities.
        • Tree Plantation Campaign: Extensive tree planting drives were conducted in 131 cities under the ‘Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam’ campaign launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

     

    National Mission for Green India (GIM):

    • It is a key initiative under India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
    • Objectives: To safeguard, restore, and enhance India’s forest cover while addressing climate change through a blend of adaptation and mitigation strategies. 
    • Features:
        • The mission adopts a comprehensive approach to greening by focusing on various ecosystem services, including biodiversity, water resources, biomass, and critical habitats, alongside carbon sequestration. 

     

    It emphasises an integrated, cross-sectoral approach, involving both public and private lands, and actively engages local communities in planning, decision-making, implementation, and monitoring.

  • Global Soil Partnership(GSP)

    Context:

    GSP’s 12th Plenary Assembly commenced with the goal of improving and maintaining health of 50% of world’s soils by 2030, focusing on 3Rs: reduce, re-use, and renew.

    Global Soil Partnership

    • Founded in 2012, the Global Soil Partnership (GSP) is a globally recognized mechanism that works towards global soil health and sustainability.
    • Its mission is to position soils in the Global Agenda to promote sustainable soil management.
    • It aims to enforce the 1982 World Soil Charter and urge decision-makers to recognize soils’ crucial role in food security and combating climate change.
    • It is hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 
    • Objective: Improve soil governance and ensure productive soils for:
      • Food security, Climate change adaptation and mitigation and Sustainable development.

    global soil partnership.

    Key Initiatives of Global Soil Partnership (GSP):

    • Vision for Adapted Crops and Soils (VACS): Aimed at creating a resilient food system through promotion of diverse, nutritious, and climate-adapted crops grown in healthy, fertile soils.
    • Soil Mapping for Resilient Agrifood Systems (SoilFER): Under the VACS initiative, FAO is implementing SoilFER in Central America and African countries.
      • Aims to unearth valuable information from soils to guide policy making and fertiliser recommendations both at national and field scale.
    • Global Soil Laboratory Network (GLOSOLAN): quality certificate for carbon analytical results on soil samples. 

    soil health and the halting of soil degradation.

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    Indian initiatives to enhance soil health:

    • Soil Health Card Scheme: Provides farmers with soil health cards containing information on soil nutrient levels and recommendations for appropriate fertilisation.
    • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Promotes sustainable agriculture practices, including soil health management, to improve productivity and resilience.
    • Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Encourages organic farming methods to improve soil health and reduce chemical inputs.
    • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Focuses on enhancing water use efficiency in agriculture, thereby reducing soil degradation due to water stress.
    • Soil Health Management (SHM) Scheme: Aims to promote balanced use of fertilisers and improve soil fertility through integrated nutrient management.

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  • Plastic Pollution

    Context:

    India has emerged as the world’s largest plastic polluter, releasing 9.3 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic annually, according to a recent study. This accounts for nearly one-fifth of global plastic emissions.

     

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    The study defines plastic emissions as materials that have transitioned from a managed or mismanaged system (controlled or contained) to an unmanaged system (uncontrolled or uncontained, such as the environment).

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    plastic pollution

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    • The study published in Nature suggests that India’s official waste generation rate of approximately 0.12 kilograms per capita per day is likely underestimated. 
    • This discrepancy arises because official data often excludes rural areas, uncollected waste that is openly burned, and waste recycled by the informal sector, according to the study.
    • Nigeria ranks second, with 3.5 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic emissions, followed by Indonesia with 3.4 Mt and China.
    • China has significantly invested in waste collection and processing infrastructure over the past 15 years.
    • Approximately 69 percent of the world’s plastic waste emissions—around 35.7 Mt per year—come from just 20 countries. 
    • Of these, four are low-income, nine are lower-middle-income, and seven are upper-middle-income. 
    • While high-income countries generate more plastic waste, none rank in the top 90 polluters due to near-complete waste collection coverage and controlled disposal systems.

     

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    Global Plastics Treaty

    In March 2022, at the fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly, a historic resolution was adopted to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment.

    Formal negotiations for the instrument, also referred to as a UN treaty to end plastic pollution, began in November 2022 with the convening of an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC). The ambition is to complete the negotiations for a UN treaty in November/December 2024 at INC-5.

    The fourth session (INC-4) took place from 23 to 29 April 2024 in Ottawa, Canada, marking a pivotal point in the negotiations. The fifth and final session (INC-5) is scheduled for 25 November to 1 December 2024 in Busan, Republic of Korea.

    Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2021 

    The Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2021 were notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in India, aiming to address the environmental challenges posed by plastic pollution, particularly from single-use plastics. The amendment specifically targets single-use plastic items that have low utility and high littering potential.

    Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022:

    The Guidelines establish mandatory targets for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), recycling plastic packaging waste, reusing rigid plastic packaging, and using recycled plastic content. Their goal is to encourage sustainable plastic packaging and minimise the overall plastic footprint.

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  • Global Guidance to Tackle Antibiotic Pollution

    Context:

    The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued its first-ever global guidance titled Guidance on wastewater and solid waste management for manufacturing of antibiotics. 

     

    More on News:

    • The document aims to provide a scientific framework for regulators, industry players, and other stakeholders to implement effective controls against antibiotic pollution.
    • Addresses the critical issue of wastewater and solid waste management in the production of antibiotics (a contributor to antimicrobial resistance).

     

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    The Challenge of Antibiotic Pollution

    • Antibiotic pollution occurs when residues from the manufacturing of antibiotics are released into the environment (into local waterways). 
    • Despite the high levels of antibiotic pollution being well-documented, the issue remains largely unregulated, with quality assurance criteria typically not addressing environmental emissions.
    • The new WHO guidance provides a comprehensive framework for managing both liquid and solid wastes from antibiotic manufacturing facilities.

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    AMR occurs  when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites become resistant to medicines, resulting in more severe illnesses and harder-to-treat infections, which can lead to increased morbidity and mortality. Antibiotic discharge from manufacturing is a major contributor to the rising AMR crisis.

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    Key Highlights and Recommendations:

    The guidance was developed in collaboration with representatives from academia, regulatory bodies, and international organisations such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

    • The guidance sets targets to reduce AMR risks to human health and aquatic life from all antibiotics used for human, animal, or plant purposes.
    • It covers the entire production process, from the manufacturing of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to the formulation of finished products and primary packaging.
    • It bears similarities to the AMR Industry Alliance standard but includes additional requirements, such as a two-level approach (‘good’ and ‘stringent’) and specified limits on mass balance calculations.

     

    Key Elements of the Guidance:

    • Defining Targets: Establishing goals for resistance selection and ecological effects based on exposure and risk assessments.
    • Risk Management Processes: Implementing recognised risk management tools, such as hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP), alongside internal audits and public communications to achieve the defined targets.
    • Independent Audits: Conduct audits to verify compliance with the defined targets.

     

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    Various international bodies, including the WHO Executive Board, G7 health ministers, and UNEP, have called for this guidance. They emphasise the need to carefully consider the environment’s role in the development, transmission, and spread of antimicrobial resistance, as evidence continues to grow. There is broad consensus that addressing environmental factors must be a key part of the solution, encompassing pollution prevention and control in municipal systems, manufacturing sites, healthcare facilities, and agri-food systems.

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  • Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)

    Context:

    Following the recent devastating landslides in Kerala’s Wayanad district, a key discussion has arisen about whether subnational entities can seek compensation through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)’s Loss and Damage Fund (LDF). 

     

    About the Fund

     

    • The Loss and Damage Fund (LDF) was established during the 2022 UNFCCC Conference (COP27) in Egypt to provide financial aid to regions facing both economic and non-economic losses due to climate change, including extreme weather events and gradual changes like rising sea levels. 
    • The LDF is managed by a Governing Board, which decides how its resources are allocated, with the World Bank acting as the interim trustee. 
    • The Board is currently working on mechanisms for accessing the Fund, such as direct access, small grants, and rapid disbursement options. 
    • However, concerns remain that climate funds are often too slow to be of immediate help after disasters, especially for local communities. Similar challenges are expected for the LDF.
    • Previous experiences with climate finance indicate that funds can be slow to mobilise, which poses challenges for local communities needing urgent assistance.
    • Developed nations have been hesitant to commit substantial financial resources to the LDF, raising concerns about the fund’s sustainability and effectiveness in addressing the needs of vulnerable populations.

     

    India’s Role

     

    • India has experienced over $56 billion in damages from weather-related disasters between 2019 and 2023. 
    • Despite this, its National Climate Action Policy and budgets have emphasised mitigation efforts over adaptation, resulting in limited involvement in Loss and Damage discussions at COP meetings. 
    • With several regions in India highly vulnerable to climate impacts, greater participation in these talks could offer significant benefits.
    • Domestically, there is a pressing need for a clear legal and policy framework to streamline climate finance, especially for adaptation and loss and damage, in line with principles of locally-led adaptation for vulnerable communities. 
    • The introduction of a climate finance taxonomy in the Union Budget 2024 has raised hopes for increased international climate funding. 
    • However, without clear guidelines for accessing loss and damage funds within India, vulnerable communities remain at risk. 
    • India should advocate for more decentralised fund disbursement methods from the LDF in international climate negotiations rather than relying on the centralised systems used for other climate funds.

     

    State Interventions

     

    • State interventions often play a crucial role in managing the impacts of climate change. 
    • For example, in Kerala, the State government took on the bulk of the financial responsibility for disaster recovery following the devastating floods of August 2018. 
    • The Rebuild Kerala Development Programme, launched in response, exemplifies this effort. Funded through loans from the World Bank and the German KfW Development Bank, this program aimed to rebuild the State’s damaged infrastructure, including roads and bridges.
    • Despite these efforts, there is a notable gap in the standardised assessment of disaster-related damages, particularly for slow-onset events. 
    • Developing a more explicit domestic policy framework for local adaptation and establishing clearer guidelines for accessing loss and damage funds could enhance India’s capacity to manage climate change impacts more effectively.

  • The Evolution of Complex Brains in Animals

    Context:

    An assistant professor at the University of Detroit is investigating the relationship between brain structure and behaviour in reptiles, specifically lizards, to address gaps in understanding how brain function relates to behaviour.

     

    More on News:

    • Traditionally, the link between behaviour and brain function has been associated with brain size and the brain-to-body size ratio.
    • The research involves analysing anoles from Puerto Rico, a region known for its rich biodiversity. Their research indicates that the complexity of an animal’s habitat may affect brain structure.

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    Anoles, a specific type of lizard known for their ability to change colour, possess a dewlap (throat fan), and have adhesive toe pads, are widespread in the Americas, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.

     

     

    • The team collected 64 anoles during the summers of 2019 and 2021, focusing on six species within the same ecomorph class that share many physical traits despite being different species.
    • Anolis evermanni, Anolis stratulus, Anolis cristatellus, Anolis gundlachi, Anolis krugi, and Anolis pulchellus.

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    Key Highlights:

    • The study found that lizards from more complex habitats (e.g., tree canopies) had higher neuron densities in certain brain regions compared to those from simpler habitats (e.g., tree trunks and grass). 
    • This suggests that cognitive demands in complex environments may lead to increased brain complexity.
    • Brain processing capacity is influenced by neuron number, neural plasticity, signal processing speed, synapse density, and cell type diversity. 
    • Neuron density in the telencephalon and other brain regions increased with habitat complexity, while neuron density in the cerebellum did not show significant variation.
    • Similar patterns have been observed in other vertebrates. 
    • For instance, Aegean wall lizards, three-spined sticklebacks, and zebrafish living in more complex habitats have shown better performance in spatial learning tasks and similar neuroanatomical findings.

     

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    Brain Regions Studied: 

    • Telencephalon: Involved in sensory integration and higher cognition.
    • Cerebellum: Responsible for motor coordination and learning.
    • Rest of the Brain: Handles sensory inputs and motor outputs.

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    Implications:

    • The study suggests that differences in neuroanatomy among the anoles, despite their similar social structures, diets, and sensory systems, are likely due to the complexity of their habitats.
    • It emphasises the importance of studying these differences to gain a deeper understanding of evolution and the functional diversity of brains across species.

  • Soil Carbon Storage

    Context:

    Researchers at Kansas State University (K-State) are investigating how various farming practices influence the amount of carbon stored in soil.

     

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    • Researchers utilised the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan (USask) and the Advanced Light Source in Berkeley, California, to analyse soil from a Kansas cornfield that had been farmed without tilling for 22 years.
    • Over this period, the farm implemented various soil nitrogen management practices, including no fertiliser, chemical fertilisers, and manure/compost fertilisers. 
    • Researchers discovered that soil enriched with manure or compost fertiliser retains more carbon compared to soil treated with chemical fertilisers or left untreated.

     

    Soil carbon storage

     

    Also known as soil carbon sequestration, it refers to the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in soil as organic carbon. This process is crucial for mitigating climate change, as soils hold three times more carbon than the atmosphere.

     

    Mechanisms of Soil Carbon Sequestration

     

    • Photosynthesis and Organic Matter: Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis, converting it into organic compounds. 
    • When plants die, their residues and root exudates contribute to soil organic carbon (SOC) as they decompose, aided by soil microorganisms.
    • Microbial Processes: Microorganisms play a significant role in the formation and preservation of SOC. 
    • Research indicates that microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE) is a key factor influencing SOC storage. 
    • Higher CUE correlates with increased SOC content, suggesting that microbial activity is critical for maintaining carbon in soils.
    • Agricultural Practices: Implementing specific farming practices can enhance soil carbon storage. These include:
    • Conservation Tillage: Reducing soil disturbance through low-till or no-till farming minimises the release of stored carbon.
    • Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops like clover or beans after the main harvest helps maintain carbon levels in the soil year-round.
    • Crop Rotation and Diversification: Varying crops can improve SOC levels by increasing the diversity of plant residues returned to the soil.
    • Organic Amendments: Adding compost or manure boosts organic matter content, which enhances soil structure and carbon retention.

     

    Limitations of Soil-Based Carbon Storage:

     

    • Widespread Adoption Challenges: For soil-based carbon sequestration to be effective, many farmers would need to change their farming practices, both now and for the long term which presents significant social and economic challenges.
    • Impact of Climate Change: Global warming may accelerate the decay of soil organic matter, leading to increased carbon losses.
    • In the Arctic, thawing permafrost is already releasing CO2, which could create a self-reinforcing feedback loop: as soil carbon is lost, it contributes to further warming and additional carbon release.
    • Effectiveness and Necessity: Soil-based carbon sequestration cannot remove carbon from the atmosphere as quickly as we are currently adding it.

  • Species in News: Sea turtles

    Context:

    Sea turtles in Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, are showing signs of improved health after a long period of struggling with fibropapillomatosis (a tumour disease) that affected their movement, sight, feeding, and overall survival.

     

    sea turtles

    About Sea turtles:

    • The seven sea turtle species are the Green Sea Turtle, Hawksbill, Loggerhead, Olive Ridley, Kemp’s Ridley, Leatherback, and Flatback.
    • Families: Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae.
    • Type: Large, air-breathing reptiles.
    • Habitat: Found in all the world’s oceans except for polar seas.
    • The Flatback Sea Turtle is the only one not found in U.S. waters; it is exclusively found off the coasts of Australia.
    • Evolution: Among the oldest creatures on Earth, unchanged for about 110 million years.
    • A sea turtle’s most noticeable feature is its shell, with the top part called the carapace and the bottom part called the plastron.
    • Sea turtles lack teeth but possess strong jaws capable of crushing, biting, and tearing their food.
    • They play a crucial role in marine ecosystems by supporting the health of seagrass beds and coral reefs, which in turn benefits commercially important species like shrimp, lobster, and tuna.
    • IUCN Status: Out of seven sea turtle species, three are classified as vulnerable, two as critically endangered, one as endangered, and one as data deficient.
    • Threats: Include pollution, coastal development encroaching on nesting beaches, accidental drowning in fishing gear, and the international trade in turtle meat and shell products. 
    • Conservation Efforts: In the U.S., NOAA Fisheries manages sea turtle conservation in the marine environment, while the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service focuses on nesting beaches.