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Women and Employment Opportunities
Context:
Economists often point to conservative social norms as a convenient explanation for the stagnant participation of women in wage work in India, suggesting that these norms prevent rising economic prosperity from leading to higher employment for women. However, this assumption of social stagnation is largely unfounded.
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- Women’s empowerment is often measured across four key areas: personal efficacy, intra-household negotiation power, societal engagement, and access to income-generating activities.
- Recent data indicates significant progress in the first three areas, while access to employment has remained largely unchanged.
- This paradox has led economists to attribute the lack of increased female labour participation to conservative social norms. However, this perspective does not align with the realities observed in recent surveys.
Insights from the India Human Development Survey (IHDS)
The IHDS, which has tracked changes in Indian households from 2004 to 2024, reveals substantial shifts in women’s lives.
Key Findings from IHDS:
- Educational Attainment: The gender gap in education has nearly closed. In 2011-12, only 27% of women aged 20-29 had completed class 12, and just 12% held a college degree. By 2022-24, these figures had risen to over 50% for class 12 completion and 26% for college degrees.
- Importantly, there is now parity between young men and women in higher education attainment.
- Marriage Trends: The proportion of women married by their twenties decreased from 76% in 2011-12 to 66% in 2022-24, allowing for greater personal autonomy.
- Women’s involvement in partner selection has also increased, with 52% having a say in their marriage choices by 2022.
- Social Engagement: There has been an increase in women’s comfort with independent travel and participation in community groups.
- For instance, the percentage of women comfortable travelling alone rose from 42% to 54%, and membership in Self Help Groups increased from 10% to 18%.
- Political Participation: Political engagement among young women has slightly improved, with attendance at local political meetings rising from 6% to 8%.
Economic Participation Stagnation:
- Despite these advancements, women’s participation in wage labour has stagnated.
- The IHDS shows a decline from 18% of women aged 20-29 engaged in wage work in 2012 to just 14% by 2022.
- This stagnation persists even among older women, indicating systemic barriers beyond education.
Shifting Perspectives on Employment Opportunities:
- The prevailing narrative suggests that restrictive social norms inhibit women’s employment; however, survey data contradicts this assumption.
- Among married women not employed, the desire to work if suitable jobs were available rose from 73% in 2011 to 80% in 2022.
- Additionally, a significant majority (72%) believe their families would support them working if they found appropriate opportunities.
- Programs like MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), which provide equal pay for women and men, have seen a surge of female participation, demonstrating that when opportunities arise, women are eager to engage economically.
